Second-Order Conditioning in Humans

In contrast to the large body of work demonstrating second-order conditioning (SOC) in non-human animals, the evidence for SOC in humans is scant. In this review, I examine the existing literature and suggest theoretical and procedural explanations for why SOC has been so elusive in humans. In particular, I discuss potential interactions with conditioned inhibition, whether SOC is rational, and propose critical parameters needed to obtain the effect. I conclude that SOC is a real but difficult phenomenon to obtain in humans, and suggest directions for future research.